Carl Gustav Jung

Carl Jung at roughly 30 years of age (1905) (Wehr, 1989: 38)

Carl Jung

By Jane Case

November 30, 1998

Carl Gustav Jung, a Swedish born psychiatrist, and student of Sigmund Freud, introduced a valuable theory of personality to the field of psychology. During his relationship with Freud, Jung developed an independent theory of personality. Jung emphasized five major archetypes: persona, anima, animus, shadow, and self. With a heavy reliance upon these identified archetypes, Jung constructed what he believed was a comprehensive beginning to the understanding of the human psyche. The focus of the current paper will primarily be upon the archetype Jung referred to as the shadow, however, a comprehensive look at Jung’s theory in its totality is necessary for a full understanding of his thoughts on the human psyche. Jung’s theory did not escape the scrutiny of numerous critics. However, his work with the concept of self-actualization, which is commonly referenced in current research, allows Jung to remain an influential part of modern psychological thought.

Carl Gustav Jung was born in July of 1875 (Wehr, 1989: 9). Both of his parents came from upstanding families within their community. His father was a Swiss Reformed Evangelical Minister who had earned degrees in both philology and theology. His mother came from a family full of Protestant Ministers (Wehr, 1989: 9-19). Therefore, religious influences were a constant throughout the life of Carl Jung. These religious influences that surrounded Jung growing up are important, particularly in reference to the later development of his theory of personality. Jung seemed to be an extremely inquisitive individual throughout his childhood and early adulthood. Jung, as a young boy, sought out his father’s advice on many religious questions, and he found that his father rarely provided him with satisfactory answers (Hergenhahn, 1994: 64). Jung claimed that this dissatisfaction resulted in a great distance between himself and his father, however, his relationship with his father does appear to have influenced Jung’s later development of his personality theory (Hergenhahn, 1994: 64).

When reflecting upon his discussions with his father, Jung inferred that his father followed his religion based solely on faith, but never actually had a religious experience which touched him emotionally. Religion was a significant part of Jung’s theory. Contrary to his father’s mere faith, Jung was influenced by the type of religion that did touch people in an emotional way. Jung did not seem to feel a need to regard the distinctions between churches, nor did he seem to feel compelled to subscribe to one particular religion (Hergenhahn, 1994: 64).

Jung received his formal education from the University of Basel, Switzerland. He studied the natural sciences, and then went on to study medicine from 1895-1900. While at the University, Jung read a textbook on psychiatry by a Dr. Richard von Krafft-Ebing, and this text was cited as one of the main reasons for Jung’s decision to enter into the career of psychiatry (Wehr, 1989: 17).

In 1909, Jung began his private practice. Between 1909 and his death in 1961 he traveled extensively through out the world, was a professor at several Swiss Universities, and held several esteemed positions in scholarly societies such as: the Vice President of the General Medical Society for Psychotherapy, and the President of the International Society for Medical Psychotherapy. In addition to all of these scholastic achievements, Jung published numerous works, and was awarded Honorary doctorates from Harvard, Oxford, the University of Geneva, and the Confederate Technical College of Zurich. Jung lived to be nearly 86 years old, and he died in June of 1961. Jung remained active in his field up until his death (Wehr, 1989: 154-156).

To understand the life, and more importantly, the personality theory, developed by Carl Jung, it is important to note the time span in which he lived. Jung lived through a great deal of highly relevant world history. He saw the beginning of World War I in 1914, lived through the second World War which began in 1939, and was still alive when JFK was elected to the presidency in 1960 (Wehr, 1989: 153-156). Jung obviously experienced a great deal of human emotion throughout his life time, if not first hand, he was at the very least, a distant witness. Jung was a well educated individual, and the time period in which he lived, at least in part, is a clear reflection of his theory of personality.

At the start of Jung’s career as a psychiatrist, the work of Sigmund Freud appeared to be quite influential. A friendship between these two men began in 1906 when Jung publicly supported Freud’s psychoanalysis. Freud was initially so impressed with Jung, and his support of psychoanalysis, that he actually decided that Jung would become his successor. However, in September of 1909, Jung and Freud traveled to America together to give a series of lectures at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts. It was at this time that Jung began to doubt Freud’s emphasis on sexual motivation, which was central to his theory of psychoanalysis (Young-Eisendrath & Dawson, 1997: 12).

"Main building of Clark University in Worcester (about 1900)."

"Speakers and guests at the conference of psychologists in September 1909 in Worcester, Massachusetts. C. G. Jung in the front row, third from left, Freud fourth from left." (Wehr, 1989: 35)

Jung thought Freud’s theory might be more easily accepted by American audiences if sexual motivation was less central to Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis. In 1911, the friendship between these two men ended when Jung publicly expressed his lack of support for Freud’s view of the nature of the libido (Wehr, 1994: 33-39).

George B. Hogenson (1983) wrote Jung’s Struggle With Freud, a comprehensive analysis of the interactions between these two innovative thinkers. The author, who is a practicing psychotherapist in Chicago, Illinois, maintains that these two men shaped the field of psychology, and still have a great influence on modern day thought. Not only do each of these men have supporters today, Jungians and Freudians, but Jungian thought appears to have developed out of both support, as well as discontentment, with Freudian thought. Jung’s break from Freud should not have come as a shock, however. Freud was aware, from the beginning of their union, that Jung differed from him with regard’s to their theoretical views. None-the-less, Freud had originally identified Jung as the successor to psychoanalysis, prior to their division (Papadopoulos, 1992: 262-263). It is important to note that Jung’s thinking, and ultimately his theory, in part, came out in support of Freud’s work, and then later posed some views which countered Freud’s ideas. Even Jung seemed to realize that although he did not agree with Freud about many issues, Freud’s thoughts had a profound effect on his own (Jung, 1963: 146-169).

Jung developed an entire theory of personality, however, this paper will focus more specifically on what Jung referred to as the shadow, which is essentially a theory on evil. Jung identified three components of the personality. First, there was the ego, which is everything that an individual is conscious of. Since Jung and Freud had a close relationship at one time, the concept of ego described by Freud is similar to Jung’s own notion of the ego. Basically, the ego is what a person thinks, feels, remembers, and perceives; more generally, the ego is one’s consciousness (Stevens, 1994, 45-46).

Next, Jung identified the personal unconscious; it consists of experiences that are unique to a given individual. Parts of the personal unconscious could have been present in one’s consciousness at some point in time, however, they eventually become repressed, or more than likely, forgotten. The third of Jung’s components of personality is the collective unconscious. This is what all human beings are thought to share. Given the human psyche is the impression of an ancestral bond among human beings. Jung is quoted as describing the collective unconscious as "detached from anything personal and is common to all men, since its contents can be found everywhere" (Hergenhahn, 1994: 76). Some examples of these commonly shared experiences, which are thought to be a part of the collective unconscious are: "birth, death, the sun, darkness, power, women, men, sex, water, magic, mother, heroes, and pain" (Hergenhahn, 1994: 76). These specific experiences are referred to by Jung as archetypes, although they are sometimes referred to as racial memories or primordial images (Hergenhahn, 1994: 76).

In Jung’s 1917 article "On the Psychology of the Unconscious," it is noted that the collective unconscious and the personal unconscious are separate (Brockway, 1996: 38-39). Jung is quoted as stating that the collective unconscious is "the most ancient and the most universal ‘thought forms’ of humanity" (Brockway, 1996: 38-39). Jung also wrote extensively on five specific archetypes, however, he did recognize that many more existed. The five which Jung was most interested in were the persona, the anima, the animus, the shadow, and the self.

First, the persona is what Jung thought of as the public self. Jung thought that people basically played a role in a drama, and society, as a whole, was their audience. Despite the existence of the collective unconscious, which all human beings are said to share, Jung believed that because persons were on earth at different times, and members of different cultures, the persona allowed an individual to almost create for him or herself a unique personality (Hergenhahn, 1994: 77-78).

To Jung, the persona was a built in deception mechanism, which was necessary for human existence. Individuals were to only share a small portion of themselves with other people, in an obvious effort toward deception. Jung thought it was dangerous for an individual to believe that he or she is actually in congruence with the persona presented to the outside world. Jung believed this to be dangerous, because he considered it to be self deception (Hergenhahn, 1994: 77-78).

The anima, according to Jung, exists in every male, and it is their feminine component. This is a result of the experiences men have with women throughout their life-times. This archetype serves a duel purpose. First, it causes men to have "feminine traits," and secondly, it provides men with a framework for interacting with women (Hergenhahn, 1994: 78). Some collective experiences with women, which are shared by men, are relationships with mothers, daughters, sisters, or even loved ones. The experiences, which shape this archetype, enable men to view women as complex, but it also allows for men to typify women. As a whole, women can be viewed as loyal, seductive, or even challenging. Women may also be viewed as antagonistic, in that they are a representation of both goodness as well as evil, as hopefulness as well as despair, and as accomplishment as well as failure (Hergenhahn, 1994: 78).

In contrast to the anima archetype there is the animus. The animus is the male component of the female personality. The animus is said to provide women with an ideal of men. This ideal is shaped by women’s collective experiences with men as fathers, sons, or brothers, for example. Much like the opposing aspects mentioned pertaining to the anima, men also represent to women good and evil, or accomplishment and failure (Hergenhahn, 1994: 78). The key to Jung’s theory, not just in regards to the anima and animus, but in general, is a healthy balance. Men who do not give into their feminine characteristics are thought to lack sensitivity and intuition, as well as creativity. On the other hand, a woman who fails to display a healthy level of her masculine characteristics is thought to be passive and easily controlled by others (Hergenhahn, 1994:78).

According to Jung, the anima and the animus are two of the most influential archetypes (Jung, 1963: 379-380). These two archetypes might be thought of as a bridge between the unconscious and the outside world. Interaction, particularly between genders, is thought to basically be enhanced by the full development of the applicable archetypes (i.e. a female with a well developed anima, or a male with a well developed animus) (Jung, 1963: 379-380).

The next archetype is the shadow, described as the "darkest and deepest part of the psyche" (Hergenhahn, 1994:79). Since Jung’s views on evil are central to the focus of the current paper. The depth of the shadow archetype will be discussed more fully later in the paper. Lastly, the self, is the archetype which Jung thought of as the balancing component of individuals. The self is thought to be one’s goal toward wholeness, and a total integration of the many facets of one’s personality. This harmonious unity, was thought of by Jung, as an individual’s life goal. To be in sync with one’s many components of the personality, is to be complete (Jung, 1963: 386-387).

In order to gain a comprehensive understanding of an individual’s soul, Jung thought it was important to understand "paired opposites" (Papadopoulos, 1992: 19). Perhaps one of the most popularized paired opposites today is that of the Yin/Yang. Opposing forces, which are not limited to the Yin/Yang or the animus/anima, provide a tremendous energy source to an individual. All of the components, which together ideally form the complete self, have an intricate part in the goal toward wholeness (Papadopoulos, 1992: 19).

In the case of the shadow, which is essentially the opposing forces of good and evil, one would not be complete if his or her shadow were to be destroyed. In order to function in an efficient manner, and continually move toward the ultimate goal of a complete self, one must begin to understand his or her shadow. It is only through this understanding that one’s evil tendencies can be controlled (Papadopoulos, 1992: 19). Early philosophical influences, such as that of the Yin/Yang, appear to be the primary influence of Jung’s personality theory.

To explore the archetype which Jung called the shadow fully, Jung’s elaborate, and sometimes seemingly chaotic thinking on this topic, must be discussed. Jung adopted the name "the shadow" from the well known philosopher Nietzsche (Diamond, 1996: 94). Labeling a part of the unconscious as "the shadow," was a way to identify the evil part of an individual’s unconscious (Diamond, 1996: 94).

Jung considered the shadow to be the "inferior part of the personality." This might include such inferior traits as sexual lust, anger, and rage. However, Jung did recognize that such unacceptable, or evil passions, were to some degree dependent upon the prevailing social norms and values of any given time. Jung also made a distinction between the "personal shadow" which can be thought of as individual evil, and the "archetypal shadow" which can be considered collective evil (Diamond, 1996: 96). Jung believed that the shadow had the potential for good. However, he focused on the evil potential of the shadow, because of the threat of danger he associated with it.

Jung wrote that:

We need more understanding of the human nature, because the only real danger that exists is man himself. He is the great danger, and we are pitifully unaware of it. We know nothing of man, far too little. His psyche should be studied, because we are the origin of all coming evil (Stein, 1995: 1).

Jung believed that the investigation, and a comprehensive understanding of the shadow, were necessary because it would enable human existence to continue to thrive. Without the understanding of evil, Jung seemed to believe that the threat of complete destruction loomed over the world (Stein, 1995: 1-2).

Although the shadow is an archetype that exists within all individuals’ unconscious, Jung did not believe that the unconscious was completely evil. The shadow needed to be investigated with caution, however, due to its unpredictable nature, described as having the potential to "easily become volatile and turn against the ideals of goodness, ..." (Stein, 1995: 6). Even though the shadow lies within the framework of the unconscious, the decision to act in an evil manner is thought to be at the conscious level (Stein, 1995: 8-9). In order to reduce evil tendencies, it is crucial for an individual to understand both his or her conscious, as well as unconscious, and by doing this two main types of evil can be controlled. First, there is evil committed by one individual and projected onto another individual or several individuals. However, the second type of evil to be controlled, perhaps more severe, is the evil engaged in by an entire group. An example of such an event might be that of a world war (Stein, 1995: 17-21). This part of Jung’s theory may have been a result of the time period in which he lived.

"One does not become enlightened by imagining figures of light, but by making the darkness conscious."
Here, the encounter with the shadow within psychic processes - a drawing from the "Red Book." (Wehr, 1989: 55)
One’s inclination might be that the unconscious is deterministic according to Jung, because he expressed the belief that the unconscious complexes appeared to have wills of their own, and these wills did not necessarily conform to the desires of the conscious individual (Stein, 1995: 3). However, it is difficult to identify any true root cause of evil according to Jung, which is only one of the many criticisms to be covered. Depending upon the source, there were different interpretations of Jung’s work. This is likely to be a result of his changing opinions on evil through time, as well as the human psyche in general, throughout his lifetime. Jung also noted that evil exists because someone, or maybe a society, decides that some given act is evil. (Stein, 1995: 19)

Jung seemed to protect his theory from scrutiny by never fully adhering to a true reason for evil existence, and he seemed to think that any suggestion for why evil occurs could be validated. Even the notion of demonic possession seemed to hold some value according to Jung. This may, at least in part, be associated with his religious upbringing. Although Jung did not appear to ascribe to one particular religious faith, his thinking seemed to be heavily influenced by the concepts generally associated with religion, as well as early philosophy. In 1945, Jung defined demonism (which was synonymous to possession) as a peculiar state of mind characterized by the fact that certain psychic contents, the so-called complexes, take over the control of the total personality in place of the ego, at least temporarily to such a degree that the free will of the ego is suspended. Demonism can also be epidemic... The epidemic form included collective psychoses of a religious of political nature, such as those of the twentieth century (Diamond, 1996: 97-98).

The shadow is a part of each individual’s personality, and there appears to be a constant struggle between good and evil within each individual. Jung’s theory places the burden of making good versus evil judgments on the conscious part of the personality. He did not believe that persons could turn to a spiritual entity for answers about good or evil, but he believed these issues were to be contemplated until clear answers were discovered. Jung believed it was critical for all human beings to investigate their unconscious, as well as their conscious, in order for the mysteries of the shadow to be unleashed (Stein, 1995, 7-19).

In Jung’s (1963: 176-181) Memories, Dreams, Reflections, he recognized that evil was ingrained in human culture, and that people needed to learn how to handle it in order to over come all of the feared consequences evil could bring. This learning comes primarily from introspection. Since Jung was a psychiatrist, he valued individuals and thought that each person had the ability to control their evil nature or shadow. This has to be done by completely understanding one’s self. Introspection seemed to be the key, and the assistance of psychoanalysis was also thought to be necessary. Jung felt that once an individual recognized the fact that there was an evil side within him or herself, a person has a greater chance of controlling the impulses which cause his or her evil behavior (Jung, 1963: 176-181).

A contemporary observation of this point notes that Jung’s view on the introspection of evil is quite optimistic, and if accurate, it opens the door to rehabilitation of perpetrators (Stein, 1995: 11). In light of the current interests within the field of criminology, the validated rehabilitation of criminal perpetrators would probably be enthusiastically celebrated. However, Jung’s theory is certainly not free from contemporary criticisms. Generally, Jung’s research has been looked down upon due to skeptics who think that "occultism, spirituality, mysticism, and religion" are all irrational (Hergenhahn, 1994: 92). Jung did have the chance to refute this criticism, and supported the belief that it was worth while to study such spiritual topics, but the mere study of them did not necessarily confirm his own belief in them. Jung claimed that he studied these particular areas, mostly for the benefit of understanding his concept of the collective unconscious. This attitude might be compared to the history of criminological thought. Initially in the field of criminology, religious explanations for criminal behavior and the belief in the supernatural were common place. However, once human beings reached the period of Enlightenment, these "demonic perspectives" were no longer accepted, particularly among scholars (Phofl, 1994 :19-55 ).

Another broad criticism of Jung’s theory is that it is "incomprehensible, unclear, inconsistent, and even contradictory" (Hergenhahn, 1994: 92). This accusation is difficult to deny. Jung’s writing contained some confusing points, and a great deal of loose transitions from one topic to another. However, it is important to note that Jung’s work has been translated, therefore potentially losing some of its intended meaning in translation.

Another very important criticism to note, is Jung’s lack of empirical research. His theory has been attacked as being "non-falsifable and unscientific" (Hergenhahn, 1994: 93). Jung failed to make predictions within the framework of his theory, which nearly freed him entirely from being incorrect. Jung arrived at his theory, in large part, through his work as a psychiatrist, and through mere introspection. Jung considered his own thoughts, feeling and dreams, and listened to the thoughts, feelings and dreams of his patients to help shape his theory. The fact that his own thoughts were at the core of Jung’s theory, and that he dealt with persons on a regular basis who for one reason or another needed psychiatric attention, leads one to reasonably question the validity and relevance of Jung’s observations to arrive at a comprehensive theory of human personality.

Don McGowan (1994) wrote What is Wrong with Jung, putting Jung’s entire theory under attack. "What are Jung’s contributions worth? Are they true? Have they shed any light on the so-called mysteries of the human mind? And how does Jung’s work look in the light of today’s science and humanistic studies?" (McGowan, 1994: 9). These are the questions which McGowan set out to answer. Although the criticisms of this author lie within the framework of Jung’s entire personality theory, I would like to address some of the criticisms related to the shadow which were presented. McGowan noted the fact that Jung used the shadow to describe both an archetype and personal component. It was noted that none of the other archetypes have double meanings, and McGowan questions why Jung found the need for two. McGowan also blatantly said that to use logic to argue Jung’s theory would be in vain due to the fact that Jung’s theory was not based on logic to begin with (McGowan, 1994: 10). The value of methodology has become more central to theory construction in recent years. When Jung first started his professional career the entire field was rather new, and any ideas or theories which generated potential explanations to various phenomena were probably enthusiastically welcomed.

McGowan also criticized Jung’s concept of the anima and animus, because they too closely resemble the Taoist concept of Yin/Yang. McGowan accuses Jung of becoming over zealous about a concept he did not bother to fully understand. Many of the attributes ascribed to the Yin/Yang were echoed in Jung’s description of the animus/anima. The concept of a healthy balance, and perhaps more importantly the feminine versus masculine traits of each, were already well established prior to the creation of Jung’s personality theory.

The main issue McGowan (1994: 34-35) seems to pick apart pertaining to the Yin/Yang versus animus/anima debate is that Jung made use of what he liked, and basically ignored the rest of the Taoists’ beliefs. Taoists believed that harmony was basically contentment with what an individual was given, and a lack of the desire to explore (both in a personal and environmental sense). Jung on the other hand thought that self exploration, and complete understanding, were the only ways to achieve that idealized balance (McGowan, 1994: 33-35).

Jung has also been criticized as being too self-absorbed (Smith, 1996:160). Jung listened to his patients, however, his theory really seemed to be a result of his own thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and experiences. Jung’s perspectives were frequently changing, and his theory, overall, ended up seeming quite inconsistent (Smith, 1996: 161). Jung believed that the role of the therapist was pertinent in order for his patients to rid themselves of the problems they claimed (Smith, 1996: 161). This was quite self-serving for Jung, in that he was a psychiatrist, and he seemed to enable himself to remain at the focal point in any situation. The theme of Smith’s (1996) book, The Wounded Jung, was not entirely based on criticisms. Smith (1996: vii) himself seemed to be quite affected by Jung’s work. However, it seems to be difficult to write a comprehensive book on Jung, and his theory, without addressing the numerous short comings within his work.

Jung’s work has had some valuable impact on the social sciences. Jung arrived at several original concepts in personality theory. Self-actualization is a term which Jung used to describe a "harmonious blending of the many components and forces within the psyche" (Hergenhahn, 1994: 85). According to Jung, self-actualization never really occurred, but life was a long, complex journey of self discovery. This was the first time such a concept was presented, and it is still a part of current psychological thought.

Today, indications of Jung’s work within the filed of criminology are sporadic. Although Jung himself was not cited in this particular research study, his concept of self-actualization was. This particular article covers the issue of domestic violence, which is still a popular topic today (Gil, 1981: 339-362). Although this research was geared toward public policy, and its focus was on prevention, it was noted that people have a need for "... mutually caring human relationships, ..., security, and self-actualization" (Gil, 1981: 339). At least in theory, the concept of self-actualization has been deemed important. Although, maybe not within the exact sense that Carl Jung first used it. However, an effort to reach Jung’s concept of self-actualization, is not all that foreign, even in today’s society.

In another article appearing in a 1998 publication of the Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, the work of Carl Jung was deemed noteworthy, and relevant to the field of criminology today. The title of the article was "Impact of Horticulture Therapy on Psychosocial Functioning Among Urban Jail Inmates" (Rice & Remy, 1998: 169-191). Horticulture therapy is basically offering individuals the opportunity to maintain gardens, or other types of plant life, and viewing this given opportunity as at least beneficial, and at best therapeutic for individuals. This article was an evaluation of a horticulture therapy program and in its conclusion stated:

Carl Jung’s insights on the human need for a relationship with land may help to explain this treatment effect. As an observer from a more agrarian society, Jung noted in a 1950 interview that Americans suffered from the rapid urbanization of their country (Carol, 1977). Jung’s evolutionary based theory of psychology suggests that we retain the primate’s territorial needs and can more readily tap our psyche’s instinctual knowledge when this need is met. Jung stated that "If I do not have what my psyche needs, I become dangerous" (p. 203).

In a 1957 interview, Jung posited that the American proclivity for drug use and abuse was linked to disconnection from our natural instincts (Jung & Evans, 1977). This unmet need is likely greatest in decaying inner cities. (Rice & Remy, 1998: 186).